Taxus arbor

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Complete text of entry:

Taxus arbor Dyascorides est similis palme et foliis et altitudine, nascitur in Italia et capadocia et in Ispania, in Italia vero eius semine galline inpinguantur: sed si hoc gustaverit solutionem ventris patitur, taxus vero que nascitur in calabria tantam vim habet ut quisquis sub ea dormierit aut sederit statim periculum substinet vite et cetera, Plinius taxus inquit similis est abietibus aspectu minime virens gracilisque et tristis ac dira nullo succo ex omnibus sola baccas fert, masculus noxio fructu letale quippe baccis in Ispania precipue venenum est vasa etiam viatoria ex ea vinis in Gallia facta mortifera fuisse compertum est, hanc sextius smilacem a grecis vocari dicit et est in archadia tam presentis veneni ut si qui dormiant sub ea cibumve capiant moriantur, sunt et qui toxica appellari hinc dicant, que nunc toxica dicimus quibus sagite tinguntur repertum innoxiam fieri si in ipsa arbore clavus ereus adigatur et cetera, taxum vocant rome et circumstantibus locis arborem cuius ligno fiunt arcus et baliste que ivo vel quod ivum dicitur bicolor ex albo et citrino.


Simon's text sectioned:

Taxus arbor Dyascorides est similis palme et foliis et altitudine, nascitur in Italia et capadocia et in Ispania, in Italia vero eius semine galline inpinguantur: sed si hoc gustaverit solutionem ventris patitur, taxus vero que nascitur in calabria tantam vim habet ut quisquis sub ea dormierit aut sederit statim periculum substinet vite et cetera,


Apparatus:

est om. B

et om. e {preceding altitudine}

Italia AC | ytalia B e f

Ispania. in Italia AC | ypania In (ĩ B) ytalia B e f

galline AC e | galine f | gal'ie B

inpinguantur f | impinguãtur C | ĩpinguãt~ A | ĩpĩguant~ e | ĩpĩguatur B

homo BC e f | hõ A

patitur ABC | patit~ f | patiet~ e

substinet AC f | sustinet B | subtinet e


Translation:

The taxus {"yew"} tree is similar to palma {"palm tree"; see Commentary below} by its leaves and in height. It grows in Italy, Capadocia and Spain {see Commentary below}; in Italy chickens are fattened with its seeds {see Commentary below}. But if someone has tasted it he suffers a loosening of the belly. The taxus that grows in Calabria has so much strength that whoever sleeps or rests under it, is in immediate danger of his life.


Commentary:

Simon's excerpt is from Dyascorides alphabeticus f 73r, s.v. Taxus, which is copied from Dioscorides Longobardus, where the Greek word smilax is used: 4, 76, ed. Stadler (1901: 44). De ismilax, here with the prosthetic i-vowel common in Vulgar Latin with word-initial s + consonant. The original Greek text is in 4, 79, ed. Wellmann (1906-14: II.241), σμῖλαξ /smîlax/. But the synonymy between smilax and taxus is confirmed already in the Greek text: Ῥωμαῖοι δὲ τάξον καλοῦσιν /Rhōmaîoi dè táxon kaloûsin/ and also in the Longobardic translation: Romei vero taxum vocant – "the Romans call it taxus".

The translation of the text shows a number of deviations from the Greek original. taxus {"yew"} is compared to palma in Latin, but the Greek says ἐλάτη /elátē/, whose basic meaning is "fir" and "pine", trees to which the yew bears some similarity as a conifer. However, there is a tenuous link between the word elate and palma, i.e. the leaf envelope of the palm-bud is also called elate, perhaps this fostered the mistranslation.

As for where the tree grows there is quite some variation in the mss. and in the prints, but the Longobardic translation has: In italie et in campanie nascitur - "It grows in Italy and in Campania", Simon has: nascitur in Italia et capadocia et in Ispania – "It grows in Italy, Capadocia and Spain", and the Greek original has: ἐν Ἰταλίᾳ καὶ ἐν Ναρβωνίᾳ τῇ κατὰ τὴν Σπανίαν /en Italia kaì en Narbōnía tê katà tḕn Spanían/ "{it grows} in Italy and in the Narbonne near Spain".

Simon follows closely the Latin translation: In italia vero de cujus semine gallinas inpinguat, which Simon corrects into: in Italia vero eius semine galline inpinguantur – "in Italy chickens are fattened with its seeds". However, the Greek original says, p. 241: τὸν καρπὸν ὀρνύφια ἐσθίοντα πνίγεται /tòn karpòn ornýphia esthíonta pnígetai/ "the small birds or domestic fowl that eat the fruit get choked". It is not impossible to think that the Longobardic translator(s) confused the similar sounding Greek /pnígō/ πνίγω "to strangle" with Latin (im-)pinguo "to make fat, fatten; become fat".

Simon's text sectioned:

Plinius taxus inquit similis est abietibus aspectu minime virens gracilisque et tristis ac dira nullo succo ex omnibus sola baccas fert, masculus noxio fructu letale quippe baccis in Ispania precipue venenum est vasa etiam viatoria ex ea vinis in Gallia facta mortifera fuisse compertum est, hanc sextius smilacem a grecis vocari dicit et est in archadia tam presentis veneni ut si qui dormiant sub ea cibumve capiant moriantur, sunt et qui toxica appellari hinc dicant, que nunc toxica dicimus quibus sagite tinguntur repertum innoxiam fieri si in ipsa arbore clavus ereus adigatur et cetera,


Apparatus:

dira AC e f | dura B

succo ABC | suco e f

baccas AC f | bacchas e | bacas B

noxio B e f Pliny | noxia AC

quippe e f | quippe AC | quipe B

baccis AC e | bacis B | bacis f

Ispania AC| yspania B e f

precipue BC f | precipue A e

venenum (-nũ A) est AC | uenenũ ē B | venenũ in est e | Venuʒ est f

viatoria f Pliny | uiatoria or uĩatoria ? B | vinatoria AC e

vinis AC e | uuis f | unus B

gallia AC e | galia B f

smilacem B | smilacẽ AC e | sil'acem f | milacem Pliny

potentis | presentis BC | pñtis A e f | praesentis Pliny

qui dormiant f | qui dormiãt AC e | quis dormiat B

cibũue AC | cibum (-bũ B e) ne B e f

moriantur C | moriant~ A e f | moriẽtur B

toxica ABC f | tosica e | taxica Pliny

appellari hinc (hĩc C) dicant AC | hinc appellare dicant f | hĩc appellari dicũt e | appll'ãt dicant B

sagitte e f | sagite ABC

innoxiam C | innoxiaʒ A | inoxia e | ĩ noxia B f

in ipsa AC | ipsa B | ipsa e f

ereus A e f | ereus B | erens C {'u' upside down > 'n'}

et cetera added by a different hand f | om. B e


Translation:

Pliny says: taxus {"yew-tree"} is similar in appearance to abietes {"fir-trees"}, somewhat green and slender, sombre and ominous looking, with no sap, and from all {the conifers} it is the only one bearing berries. The male tree has a harmful fruit, indeed lethal, especially concerning the berries in Spain, it is pure poison. Also a travelling-container made in Gaul from its wood for wine is confirmed to have been deadly. Sextius {Niger} says that the tree is called smilax by the Greeks and in Archadia it is so full of active poison that those who sleep under it or have a meal there will die. And there are those who say that what was formerly called toxica {"toxic matter"; but Pliny has: taxica "matter made from taxus = yew"} we call nowadays toxica in which arrows are dipped. It has been found that it {i.e. the tree's poison} can be made harmless, if a copper nail is driven into the tree; etc.


Commentary:

Simon's excerpt is from Pliny, 16, 20, 50-1, ed. Rackham (1938-63: IV.420).

This text is relatively uncorrupted, except for the etymology of taxus, where Pliny thinks that toxica "poisonous matter" was formerly called taxica "matters relating to the yew-tree", an explanation that was obviously lost on the transmitters of Simon's work at an early date. Their nonsensical version says that what was formerly called toxica is called toxica today. Greek τόξον /tóxon/, primarily meaning "the (weapon) bow" and then "poison", is by some thought to be etymologically related to taxus.

Also Pliny's travelling-container for wine, i.e. vasa viatoria, was redundantly interpreted by some copyists to be vasa vinatoria "wine-carrying container" for wine.

Pliny uses the collateral form milax for smilax, reflecting Greek σμῖλαξ /smîlax/ and μῖλαξ /mîlax/. Contrary to taxus, which is almost universally identified with "yew", smilax denotes a large number of very different plants {see Botanical identification below}.

Sextius Niger, who lived during the first half of the 1st century AD, was a botanical and pharmacological writer. He wrote in Greek and his work bore the same title as Dioscorides': Περὶ ὕλης ἰατρικῆς /Perì hýlēs iatrikês/ {"On materia medica"} He is often quoted by Pliny and Dioscorides.


Simon's text sectioned:

Taxum vocant rome et circumstantibus locis arborem cuius ligno fiunt arcus et baliste que ivo vel quod ivum vulgo dicitur bicolor ex alba et citrino.


Apparatus:

rome B f | Rome e | ratione AC

yuo vel quod yuuʒ vulgo C | yuo vl' quod yuum vulgo A | ino uel reũ a uulgo B | iuo l' quod iuuʒ vulgo e | iuo quod iuum vulgo f

& (et C) citrino ABC | et (in f) citrino e f


Translation:

{In his concluding remarks Simon says:} In Rome and the surrounding localities they call taxus a tree from whose wood bows and balista missiles are made; in folk language it is also called ivo or ivum, {its wood is} of two colours, white and lemon-yellow {see Botanical identification below}.


Commentary:

Taxus is Latin for "yew-tree". The synonymous forms ivo/yvo and ivum/yvum appear in most Medieval Latin sources as cf. LATHAM: ifus = 1271, 1306; ivus = 1305, ivyus 1298, (?) yva a 1250 "yew-wood" (Fr. if) and DU CANGE: Juus, Abies, Vulgo If Gallis {i.e. Ivus fir, pine, in folk language If with the French}. According to Dauzat if, already mentioned in the Chanson de Roland 1080, is derived from Gaulish ivos, whereas Onions, p. 1020, s.v. yew states that French if and Spanish iva {?, the word is not mentioned in Corominas} are from Germanic. Simon's forms are ivo/yvo fem. and ivum/yvum neut.

The context of this sentence clearly favours the reading Rome, class. Romae, "in Rome" rather than ratione. In certain manuscripts this would be written as rõe. Cappelli (1912: 332): shows an abbreviation very similar to rõe, i.e. roẽ with a short superscript stroke between 'r' and 'o', or roe with a superscript arc above the whole word. The reading ratione is simply due to a misinterpretation or a corruption of the abbreviation symbol.

Puzzling about Simon's statement is that the word ivo/ivum is supposed to be used in the areas around Rome, whereas French if has a very restricted distribution to the Gallo-Roman Romania. Battisti (1968: 2130), s.v. iva, puts its first documented appearance in the Italian literature as late as the 15th century. But according to him iva denotes the perennial herb Ajuga iva, a plant of the bugle family with a Mediterranean distribution. The name iva, he says, is still used for this plant in Sardinia, Sicily and Veneto. He does not attempt to give any explanation why two very different plants like A. iva and the yew-tree should be given the same name {see Botanical identification below}. He continues to say that the name īvus, meaning "yew" {tasso in Modern Italian}, was in use with the physicians and was introduced into Italy from France with the Carolingian culture, i.e. the 8th and 9th centuries. If this be the case it is conceivable that the word ivus/iva was more popular around Rome in Simon's days than it is today.

As to the word's origin Battisti is non-committal saying that Gallo-Latin *īva goes together {"va congiunto"} with late Latin īvus (fr. If) "yew", borrowed from Gaulish, cf. Irish eo, or from Germanic cf. Old High German iwa {cf. Modern German Eibe, "yew"}, from which French if is derived.


Botanical identification:

There is little disagreement, that taxus is the "yew tree", i.e. Taxus baccata L., a conifer with a distribution over most of Europe, northwest Africa, Iran and Southwest Asia. This is in stark contrast to Greek σμῖλαξ /smilax/, μῖλαξ /mîlax/, for which LSJ offer five different identifications. But this need not be of any concern here since all our sources clearly state unambiguously that σμῖλαξ /smilax/, μῖλαξ /mîlax/ here means taxus in Latin.

But there are also clues in the depiction of the plant, e.g. it is compared to abies, "fir" or "pine", establishing that it is a conifer; its wood is said to be bicolor, "of two colours", no doubt alluding to the outer pale-coloured {Simon: albus} thin layer of sap wood, that is highly elastic and the reddish {Simon: citrinus} very tough and durable heart wood. Yew wood has been used since the Mesolithic for spears and bows, particularly the long bow.

The poisonous nature of parts of the yew-tree is borne out by modern science: the leaves are extremely poisonous and so is the seed. The seed is found in an open-ended soft, red, berry-like structure, botanically a modified scale, within which there is a seed cone containing a single seed.

Returning to the puzzling fact that in Italy Ajuga iva, (L.) Schreb. of the bugle family is called iva, the same name that is given to Taxus baccata L., the yew-tree. Genaust (1996: 311), s.v. Íva, can only see a connection between the yellow colour of the male yew flowers and yellow {but mainly rosy-purple} flowers of A. iva. But Battisti (1968: 2130), s.v. iva, mentions that this herb was used against arthritis and is still called ivartètica in Tuscany. This medicinal property seems to point to a better match. It is a related plant, the brightly yellow-flowered Ajuga chamaepitys (L.) Schreb., "yellow bugle" or "ground-pine", also with a near European, Mediterranean and North African distribution and whose medicinal uses are described by Grieve, p. 141, as "a good remedy, combined with other suitable herbs, for gout and rheumatism".

A. iva and A. chamaepitys are sufficiently similar to be confused. But A. chamaepitys, as its name "ground-pine" suggests, gives the impression of a diminutive pine tree; and its leaves, when crushed, have a resinous smell similar to pine needles. The yew would therefore have been seen as the "big iva" and the ground pine as the "little iva". This is in agreement with French usage, where if stands for the yew-tree and ivette for the ground pine.

Iva has survived into botanical Latin as a specific epithet in A. iva, but also confusingly the name Iva was given by Linnaeus to a totally unrelated genus of Compositae from America, often called "marshelders".


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